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Solar Technology

Standard Test Conditions (STC) are the laboratory conditions under which all PV modules are tested. It can be said that STC is a benchmark for comparing different types of PV modules, even if they are not from the same provider.

STC means:

An irradiance of 1000 watts per square meter, which equivalent of peak sunshine on a surface directly facing the sun in a day without clouds.
Temperature of the cell – 25°C. The temperature of the solar cell itself, not the temperature of the surrounding.
Mass of the air – 1.5.

Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT), the real site conditions under which a PV module will operate.

The irradiance is 800 watts per square meter
the temperature considered is 45 (+/- 3) °C.
The light spectrum is the same as for STC.

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Understand DISCOM Electricity Bill

Electricity Duty

Electricity duty is defined as per the policy of the central government with taxes going to the state government. This differs from state to state. The tax is also different for different sectors and industries.

Electricity Duty is applicable on the usage of electricity and the amount goes to the state government. The amount is applicable as per the central government policy.

Cross Subsidy

Though the cost of supplying electricity to all the categories of consumers remain the same the tariff charged is different. Domestic consumer may be charged Rs.2.5 per unit whereas industrial consumer may be charged Rs.3.5 per unit for the consumption. Domestic consumers are cross subsidized by the industrial consumers. This happens to be one of the major tool for energy conservation.

Electricity Duty or Tax

As a substitute to the cross-subsidy, state government uses tax and duty to give subsidy to the needy consumers. Different duty or tax is charged for different consumer categories. With the collection of this duty, government manages the finances for the subsidy that is provided to the needy consumers.

Application of Electricity Duty or Tax

The duty is charged on consumption at the applicable rate per unit of electricity consumed. If you electricity consumption is higher, you will be getting a higher electricity duty. Certain states the duty is charged on the total charges. The only way to reduce the duty is to reduce the consumption per month. This ensures that efficient energy conservation measures are taken.

Details of electricity duty or tax is as follows as per the Tariff Orders issued by various State Power Utilities:

State	Domestic	Commercial	Agriculture	LT Industry	HT industry	Railway
Andhra Pradesh	6	6	-	6	6	-
Assam	10	10	10	10	10	-
Bihar	6%	6%	4	6%	6%	6%
Chandigarh	9	11	-	11	11	-
Delhi	5%	5%	5%	5%	5%	5%
Goa	20	70	20	70	70	-
Gujarat	Rural - 7.5% Urban – 15%	25%	-	10%	15%	-
Haryana	15	15	-	15	15	-
Himachal Pradesh	3%	8%	10%	Small – 10% Medium – 15%	17%	-
Jammu and Kashmir	14 – 22%	14 – 22%	22%	22%	22%	-
Jharkhand	20-24	24-30	2	5	5	15
Karnataka	6%	6%	-	6%	6%	6%
Kerala	10%	10%	10%	10%	10%	-
Madhya Pradesh	9-15%	9-15%	-	9%	15%	-
Maharashtra	15%	17%	-	9%	9%	-
Manipur	2 Surcharge – 10%	2 Surcharge – 10%	2 Surcharge – 10%	2 Surcharge – 10%	2 Surcharge – 10%	-
Meghalaya	5	6	6	1-3%	1-3%	-
Orissa	4%	4%	2%	4%	7%	-
Punjab	13%	13%	-	13%	13%	13%
Rajasthan	40	40	4	40	40	-
Tamil Nadu	-	5%	-	5%	5%	-
Uttarakhand	15	15	15	20	25	-
Uttar Pradesh	5	7.5	7.5	7.5	7.5	-
West Bengal	10%	10-15%	-	2.5-12.5%	15%	-

Note:

The above data is Paisa per KWH.
The data was published on March, 2014. The rates may be different for 2016.

States that do not charge any tax are:

Andaman and Nicobar Island

Arunachal Pradesh

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Daman and Diu

Lakshadweep

Mizoram

Nagaland

Pondicherry

Sikkim

Tripura

Type of Lithium-ion Cell / Battery

six basic lithium battery get their names from their active materials.

lithium Cobalt Oxide (liCoO₂) LCO,
Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn₂O₄) LMO,
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide LiNiMgCoO₂ NMC,
Lithium Iron Phosphate LiFePO₄ LFP,
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide LiNiCoAlO₂. NCA
Lithium Titanate Li₂TiO₃ LTO

Safer battery materials

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

LiFePO4 batteries ideally suited for solar applications where safety, stability, and cycle life are primary requirements.

The molecular structure absorbs and releases lithium ions without a large change in volume, and is resistant to the growth of defects from daily charge and discharge cycles.

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC)

The safety of NMC (also called NCM) electrodes is lower than LiFePO4, but it is typically better than other cobalt based electrodes.

Lithium Titanate

Lithium titanate (LTO) can be used instead of graphite for the anode (negative electrode) of NMC or lithium manganese oxide (LMO) batteries. Lithium titanate batteries are considered very safe and have extremely long cycle lifetimes.

Why Thermal Management is important?

Temperature of the pack directly important:
Electrochemical Reactions
Efficiency of Pack
Charge Acceptance
Power & Energy Availability
Safety & Reliability
Life & life cycle cost

Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS)

1. Cooling

Due to inefficiency, battery cells will not only generate electricity but also heat. This heat should be moved from the battery pack when battery temperature reaches the optimum temperature or even in advance. Thus, a cooling function is required in BTMS.

2. Heating

In cold climates, battery pack temperature probably falls below the lower temperature limit. Hence, a heating function, such as PTC heater, is required to assist the battery pack to reach the proper temperature range in a shorter time.

3. Insulation

In extreme cold or hot weather, the temperature difference between the inside and outside of the battery pack is much larger than that in mild weather.

4. Ventilation

Ventilation is required to exhaust the hazardous gases within battery pack. In some systems, such as air systems, this function is combined with cooling and heating functions.

Design Considerations of Battery Pack

Electrical design
Mechanical Design
Thermal Design
Life
Durability
Performance
Safety

How to make a Battery Pack?

Number of cells assembled through series and or parallel connection to get required voltage and capacity called battery pack.

Design Consideration for a battery pack:
Cells connected in Series to get higher voltage
Cells in connected in Parallel to get higher Capacity

How to make a Battery Pack?

Design Consideration for a battery pack:

Thermal design to reduce the heat generated from the pack (cells) immediately
Control Cells temperatures
Mechanical design – safety considerations
Control bulge effects
Battery Management System (BMS)
Monitor each cells voltage/current/temperature and balancing cells during charging and discharging
Safety key – cut off system function when temperature increase
Communicates with charger to charging strategy
Electrical Design
Choose Voltage and Current
Limit cable/connector ohmic losses <200

Main Revenue Streams

EV Domain:

Electric Vehicle Manufacturers
Battery Swapping Partners

Other:

Energy Storage System Manufacturers
Solar Street light Manufacturers

Components of charging station

MCCB
MCB
SPD
AC Meter
DC Meter
Auxiliary power supply
Insulation monitoring device
CM Board

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Design Considerations of Battery Pack

How to make a Battery Pack?

Components of charging station

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